Index
Digital Transformations of Illicit Drug Markets: Reconfiguration and Continuity
ISBN: 978-1-80043-869-9, eISBN: 978-1-80043-866-8
Publication date: 16 August 2023
This content is currently only available as a PDF
Citation
(2023), "Index", Tzanetakis, M. and South, N. (Ed.) Digital Transformations of Illicit Drug Markets: Reconfiguration and Continuity (Emerald Studies in Death and Culture), Emerald Publishing Limited, Leeds, pp. 175-183. https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-80043-866-820231011
Publisher
:Emerald Publishing Limited
Copyright © 2023 Meropi Tzanetakis and Nigel South
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This work is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of these works (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode
INDEX
Accumulation
, 147
Addicted bodies
, 63
Advertising
, 112
Airbnb
, 31, 150
Algorithms
, 147, 150, 152
AlphaBay
, 54–57, 74, 134
Alprazolam
, 106
Amazon
, 25, 103
Americanisation
of drug and online policing
, 48–51
of online policing
, 57
Amphetamines
, 80, 105
Anabolic-androgenic steroids
, 17
Analogue capitalism
, 144
Anonymity
, 10, 30, 34, 46, 62, 81, 88, 97, 99, 123–124, 134, 138
App-based drug exchanges
, 18–19
app-based supply
, 23
app-mediated purchase
, 20
drug quality and personal safety
, 22–23
ease of access, immediacy, and familiarity
, 19–20
law enforcement and detection
, 23–24
personal safety concerns
, 23
range and availability of substances
, 20–21
reasons for
, 19
safety/security
, 21
visual dealing practices and ‘seeing’ quality
, 21–22
App-mediated purchase
, 20
Australia
, 10, 18, 21, 47, 54, 89, 106, 117
criminal cases in
, 46
dark web in
, 52
Australian agreement, The
, 56
Australian drug and dark web cases
, 51–54
Australian Federal Police
, 53
Barrier
, 6–7, 18–19, 49, 135, 144
Belgian Buyers
, 87–88
reasons for Belgian buyers to purchase from cryptomarkets
, 81–82
Belgian case study, The
, 86, 89
Belgian Cryptomarket Buyers
Belgian Buyers
, 87–88
drug-using careers of Belgian Buyers on cryptomarkets
, 86–87
limitations
, 90–91
methodological approach
, 75–77
motivation to buy from cryptomarkets
, 88–89
perceived influence of market disruptions on buying behaviour
, 82–84
personal use or supply of drugs
, 84–85
purchasing from cryptomarkets and drug-using career
, 78–80
rather careless attitude towards risks related to cryptomarket use
, 89–90
reasons for Belgian buyers to purchase from cryptomarkets
, 81–82
results
, 78
Belgian drug policy
, 74
Belgian Framework Note on Integral Security, The
, 75
Belgian law enforcement
, 83–84
Belgian survey respondents
, 88
Belgium
, 11, 76, 78, 81
vendors located in
, 89
Bilateral treaties
, 48
Bitcoin
, 53, 62, 65, 100
Boondoggle projects
, 98
Branding
, 135
British System
, 63
Business-to-business
, 101
Calculus-based trust
, 32
Camouflage strategies
, 7
Cannabis
, 20, 24–27, 111
Capitalism
, 153
analogue
, 144
data
, 64
digital
, 145
exit
, 151
extractive data
, 64
platform
, 12, 143, 146–148
Characteristic-based trust
, 38–41
Clarifying Lawful Overseas Use of Data Act (CLOUD Act)
, 50–51, 56
Classic illicit drugs
, 80
Clearnet
, 7
Closed ecosystems
, 151
Closed markets
, 6
Club babes
, 113
Cocaine
, 80
Cognitive enhancers
, 111
Commodification
, 147
Communication app
, 18
Communication process
, 46, 102
Communication technologies
, 16
Competition
, 5, 38, 100, 114, 131, 146
Concealment, contradiction between visibility and
, 150–151
Connectivity
, 3
Consumer-friendly services
, 107
Consumption
, 64
context of
, 105
of drugs
, 3–4
of illicit drugs
, 148
pace of
, 64
practices
, 2
Contemporary research
, 110
Continuity process
, 12
Convenience sampling strategy
, 19
Conventional drug policing methods
, 52
Conventional surveillance process
, 47
Conventional urban gentrification
, 129
Cooperation
, 31
Cordiality
, 134
customer service, cordiality, and trustworthiness
, 135–137
institutional control and public good
, 137–138
specialised knowledge and expert skillsets
, 134–135
Corporate anonymity
, 122
Counterculture
, 98
to Cyberspace
, 97–106
Crackdowns
, 37
Criminalisation
, 96
of people
, 148
Cryptomarkets
, 8, 11, 20, 22, 30, 38, 62, 74, 86, 99, 101, 132, 142–144, 149, 151
administrators
, 30
from analogue to digital capitalism
, 144–145
background
, 129–131
contradiction between legality and illegality
, 151–152
contradiction between state control and self-regulation
, 149–150
contradiction between visibility and concealment
, 150–151
as dialectical platform constellations
, 148–149
digital transformations and
, 142–144
drug-using careers of Belgian Buyers on
, 86–87
between harm reduction and efficient market structures
, 145
between harm reduction and efficient market structures
, 145–149
motivation to buy from
, 88–89
non-violence
, 131–133
platformisation of markets
, 146–148
professionalism and cordiality
, 134–138
purchasing from
, 78–80
reasons for Belgian buyers to purchase from
, 81–82
trust in
, 34–42
vendors
, 137
Cryptonerds
, 97
Cultural capital
, 11, 96, 104, 106
Culture of street
, 104
Cultures of exchange
, 96
Customer-oriented approach
, 136
Customers
, 123, 142
Cyber-libertarians
, 97
Cyberspace
, 98
continuity and change in darknet marketplaces
, 97–104
from counterculture to
, 97
drug cultures, representations, and rituals
, 105–106
drug cultures, social motives, and reciprocal relations
, 104–105
Cypherpunks
, 97
Dark net
, 80
Dark web
, 99–100, 129
AlphaBay and US Courts
, 54–55
Americanisation of drug and online policing
, 48–51
Australian drug and dark web cases
, 51–54
markets
, 46, 102
technologies
, 46
Dark web cryptomarkets
, 46, 56
transnational investigation of
, 56
DarkMarket
, 109
Darknet
, 99
Darknet cryptomarkets
, 10
findings
, 66
heroin’s bio-time
, 66–70
material rhythms of market
, 70–72
methods
, 65–66
temporal infrastructure of illicit digital markets
, 62–65
Darknet drug markets
, 8
Darknet marketplaces
, 99
continuity and change in
, 97–104
Data capitalism
, 64
Data collection process
, 75, 152
Deep web
, 7–8, 129
Delivery system
, 70
Deterrence mechanisms
, 41
Deterrence-based trust
, 32
Dialectical method
, 152
Dialectical platform constellations, cryptomarkets as
, 148–149
Dialectics
, 148
Digital aspects
, 134
Digital capitalism
, 145
from analogue to
, 144–145
Digital cultures
, 97
Digital devices
, 3
Digital drug markets
, 7
architecture of
, 6–9
Digital drug platforms
, 145, 149–150, 152
Digital environments
, 7
Digital markets
, 102
Digital platforms
, 12, 145
Digital technologies
, 7
Digital transformations
architecture of digital drug markets
, 6–9
and cryptomarkets
, 142–144
digitalization
, 2–4
drugs
, 5–6
of illicit drug markets
, 2
markets
, 4–5
structure of book
, 9–12
Digitally mediated illicit drug supply and purchase
, 17
Digitisation
, 2
Direct-to-customer (DTC)
, 112
Discussion forums
, 133
Dispute resolution
, 12, 130–131
mode
, 10, 41
systems
, 117
Disruption
, 147
Distributed accounting systems
, 62
Distribution
chain
, 47
of drugs
, 3–4, 7
of illicit drugs
, 46, 54, 142
strategies
, 62, 74
Dope sickness concepts
, 65
Doxing
, 132
Dread
, 76
Dream Market
, 76
Drug consumption
, 97, 106
Drug cryptomarkets
, 75, 91
Drug cultures
representations, and rituals
, 105–106
social motives, and reciprocal relations
, 104–105
Drug dealers
, 88, 97
Drug delivery
, 65
Drug exchanges, social media apps utilised in
, 17–18
Drug market gentrification
, 130, 138
background
, 129–131
concept
, 138
non-violence
, 131–133
professionalism and cordiality
, 134–138
Drug markets
, 30, 111–112, 124
embeddedness of drug markets in digital transformation
, 2–4
entrepreneurs
, 107
Drug quality
, 22–23
Drug sellers
, 112
Drug supply
, 16
Drug time concept
, 64, 72
Drug-related forums
, 75
Drug-retailing organisations
, 137
Drug-using careers
, 78–80
of Belgian Buyers on cryptomarkets
, 86–87
Drugs
, 5–6, 96
AlphaBay and US Courts
, 54–55
Americanisation of drug and online policing
, 48–51
Australian drug and dark web cases
, 51–54
supply of
, 84–85
Drugsforum. nl (drug-related forums on clear web)
, 75–76
Dynamics
, 75
of consumption
, 11
of technical architectures
, 149
Dystopian visions
, 99
E-commerce
platforms
, 25
site
, 117
E-pharmacy
, 122
eBay
, 25
eBayisation
, 97–104
Economic terminology
, 32, 38
Economic transactions
, 31
Economics
, 10, 31–32, 96
Ecstasy
, 80, 85
Embeddedness of drug markets in digital transformation
, 2–4
EMCDDA
, 101
Encryption
, 21, 101, 134
software
, 6–7
technology
, 8
Entrepreneurs
, 55, 98
Envoy
, 76
Epidemiology
, 96
Escrow payment system
, 41, 146
Escrow system
, 83
Ethnographic approach
, 96
European cocaine trade
, 101
EUROPOL
, 76
Exchange process
, 16
Exit capitalism
, 151
Exit scams
, 83, 137, 151
Exploratory case study
, 87
Extractive data capitalism
, 64
Facebook
, 150–151
Female buyers
, 91
Fentanyl
, 137
Financial resources
, 97
Game theory
, 32
Gamers
, 97
Gender
gendered analysis
, 110
gendered representations
, 124
gender-neutral advertising
, 112
gender-neutral branding
, 120–122
in pharmaceutical drug advertising
, 112–113
Gentrification
, 11–12, 101, 128–129, 131
aggressive
, 129
conventional urban
, 129
drug market
, 130
hypothesis
, 101
GetModa (company)
, 119
Getmoda Mick’s normative masculinity
, 117
Global Drug Survey
, 76, 86, 111
Google
, 26, 33, 110
Heroin
, 63, 67
bio-time
, 66–70
withdrawal
, 63
Hormone replacement therapy (HRT)
, 112
Hub, The
, 76
Human elements
, 63
Identity
, 7, 106
discursive performance of
, 39
verification technology
, 43
Illegality, contradiction between legality and
, 151–152
Illicit digital markets, temporal infrastructure of
, 62–65
Illicit drug markets
, 2, 16
formation of
, 5
scholarship on
, 4
Illicit drugs
, 62, 76, 78, 129
Illicit transactions
, 41
In-built app technology
, 18
Informal institutional standardizations
, 19
Information and communication technologies (ICT)
, 2, 142
Information technology
, 101
Infrastructure of illicit digital markets
, 64
temporal
, 62–65
Instagram
, 22
Institutional reputation systems
, 8
Institutional-based trust
, 10, 32, 41–42
Interdisciplinary approach
, 31
Intermediate mechanism
, 33
Internal self-regulation
, 149
International research
, 88
Internet
, 3, 16, 25, 98–99, 129, 143
Kik (app)
, 21
Knowledge
, 38
Kratom
, 68, 70
Law enforcement
agencies
, 10
crackdowns
, 40
and detection
, 23–24
LeafedOut
, 26
Learning operational security
, 135
Legal economy
, 41
Legal highs
, 17
Legal online economy
, 31, 42
Legality, contradiction between illegality and
, 151–152
Legitimate pharmacies
, 123
Lexis Advance Pacific subscription database
, 51
Libertarians
, 98
LSD
, 11, 20, 78–79, 86
Magic mushrooms
, 111
Marketing
, 135
Markets
, 4–5, 65
material rhythms of
, 70–72
perceived influence of market disruptions on buying behaviour
, 82–84
platformisation of
, 146–148
Masculinity
, 120
Material rhythms of market
, 70–72
Material-discursive entanglements concept
, 110
McDonaldisation
, 97–104
of darknet marketplaces
, 11
MDMA
, 18, 20, 53–54, 65, 80, 105
Media coverage of modafinil
, 113–116
Medicines
, 17
Megaupload
, 55
Menopause
, 112
Menstruation
, 112
Mephedrone
, 17
Methods of Darknet cryptomarket
, 65–66
Microsoft Corporation
, 50
Military–industrial complex
, 98
Missing in action (MIA)
, 70
Mobile phones
, 16
Modafinil
, 110–112
analysis of modafinil websites
, 116–117
media coverage of
, 113–116
Modafinil Mick
, 117, 120, 125
GuaranteeTM
, 117
normative masculinity
, 117
ModafinilCat
, 116, 120–122
ModafinilCat. com
, 120
ModafinilGB
, 122, 124–125
Modus Vivendi
, 76
Monero
, 62
Motivations
, 77, 81, 89
Multistage approach
, 18
Music
, 105–106
Mutual legal assistance process
, 50
Mutual societies
, 104
Mutually compatible bilateral online investigative processes
, 56
Naloxone
, 69–70
Neoclassical economics
, 32, 64
Networked reputation concept
, 33
Neurobiology
, 96
New psychoactive substances (NPS)
, 7, 17, 24–27
New Zealand (NZ)
, 49
Nod
, 67
Non-human elements
, 63
Non-physical violence
, 132
Non–violence
, 131–133
Normalisation
, 97
underpinnings of
, 102
NZ Government Communications Security Bureau (GCSB)
, 50
Online buying process
, 83
Online drug markets
, 63, 111
background
, 96–97
history
, 97–106
Online environment
, 97–98
Online investigative powers
, 57
Online markets
, 103
Online modafinil markets
analysis of Modafinil websites
, 116–117
current e-commerce site
, 117–120
gender in pharmaceutical drug advertising
, 112–113
media coverage of modafinil
, 113–116
methodological approach
, 116
Modafinil and drug markets
, 111–112
ModafinilCat
, 120–122
unregulated online pharmacy
, 122–124
Online pharmacies
, 17
Online policing, Americanisation of
, 48–51
Online reputation systems
, 40
Online survey
, 76
Online-to-online buyer-vendors (OOBVs)
, 133
Open drug markets
, 111
Operational security
, 134
Opiate Withdrawal Scale
, 63
Opiates
, 66–67
Opioids
, 67–68
Organisational concepts
, 98
Organisations
, 33
Painkillers
, 111
Participants drug-using careers
, 91
Pathologisation
, 96
Payment system
, 12, 72
Performance and image enhancing drugs (PIED)
, 24–27
Personal computers (PCs)
, 142
Personal safety
, 22–23
concerns
, 23
Personal use
, 84–85
Pharmaceuticals
, 17, 111
gender in pharmaceutical drug advertising
, 112–113
Pharmacocentrism
, 96
Phreakers
, 97
Platform capitalism
, 12, 143, 146–148
Platform economy
, 103
Platformisation
of drug markets
, 153
of markets
, 146–148
Police
, 48, 132
in closed markets
, 6
crackdowns
, 37
Policing
, 12
Americanisation of drug and online policing
, 48–51
Americanisation of online policing
, 57
conventional drug policing methods
, 52
strategies
, 8
Political ideology
, 100
Politics
, 104
Power relations
, 11, 142
in cryptomarkets
, 12
Pre-Internet era
, 142
Prevention
, 74, 153
Private market
, 104
Process-based interactions
, 43
Process-based repeated transactions
, 43
Process-based trust
, 10, 37–38, 41
Product concealment
, 134
Product quality
, 89
Production
, 3–4
of trust
, 37
of withdrawal
, 68
Professionalism
, 134
customer service, cordiality, and trustworthiness
, 135–137
institutional control and public good
, 137–138
specialised knowledge and expert skillsets
, 134–135
Prohibition
, 9
Prosumption
, 149
‘Pseudo-addicts’
, 63
Psychiatry
, 96
Psychoactif. fr
, 76
Public market
, 104
Purchasing process
, 83
Qualitative approach
, 96
Qualitative interviews
, 136
Quality Nights
, 76
Reconfiguration
, 9, 12
of scope and impact
, 2
Reddit
, 120
Reddit/darknet
, 76
Regulation
, 3
Reification (philosophical concept)
, 151
Relational trust
, 32
Reputation
fluffing
, 40
for formidability
, 137
institutional reputation systems
, 8
mechanisms
, 40
networked reputation concept
, 33
online reputation systems
, 40
scores
, 39
systems
, 39
Respondents
, 23
Retail drug markets
, 5–6, 151
Risk aversion strategies
, 89
Risk management strategies
, 63
Risk minimisation strategies
, 26
Risks related to cryptomarket use, rather careless attitude towards
, 89–90
Rituals
, 105–106
Scams
, 89–90, 92, 101, 131
Scattergun approach
, 52
Search engines
, 7–8, 24, 110
Security
, 9, 21
Semi-public market
, 104
Semi-structured interviews
, 77, 79, 82, 85, 87–88
Sharing economy
, 151
Signalling
, 39
Silk Road
, 55–57, 100–101, 131, 138
website
, 50, 130
Silk Road 2.0
, 74
Smart drugs
, 115
Snapchat (app)
, 21–22
Social knowledge
, 144–145
Social media
apps utilised in drug exchanges
, 17–18
drug supply
, 8, 24
methodological approach
, 18–19
platforms
, 8, 22
reasons for app-based drug purchasing
, 19–24
surface web supply
, 24–27
Social organisation of drug markets
, 4–5
Social supply
, 6, 20, 25, 63, 84–85, 87–88, 92, 102, 105
Social time
, 10, 62, 64, 71
Subcultural capital
, 101
Subcultures
, 11
of drug
, 96
Sufficient process-based trust
, 38
Surface web
, 7, 25
illicit drug markets
, 24
supply
, 24–27
Surveillance
, 47, 52, 56, 99
Surveys
, 115
respondents
, 82
The Onion Router (Tor)
, 99–100
Time
, 62, 64, 66, 71
Transaction cost economics (TCE)
, 4
Transparency of transactions
, 22
Trust
calculus-based trust
, 32
characteristic-based trust
, 38–41
in cryptomarkets
, 32, 34
definitions
, 31
deterrence-based trust
, 32
dilemma
, 34
dimensions of
, 31–32
disciplinary contributions
, 32–33
institutional-based trust
, 41–42
method
, 33–34
process-based trust
, 37–38
relational trust
, 32
sample description
, 35–36
sufficient process-based trust
, 38
Trustworthiness
, 31
Truth-producing mechanisms
, 63–64
Uber
, 150–151
Uberisation
, 97–104
of cocaine trade
, 102
of darknet marketplaces
, 11
of drug distribution
, 46, 102
process
, 101
Uncertainty
, 30–32
Unregulated online pharmacy
, 122–124
Urine analysis
, 63
US Courts
, 54–55
US Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
, 49
US federal District Court for the Eastern District of California, The
, 55
US law enforcement agencies
, 48, 57
US policy-makers
, 10
US technology companies
, 57
Utopian-libertarian alternative
, 131
Violence
, 5, 127 131
level of
, 46
types of
, 90
Visibility, contradiction between concealment and
, 150–151
Web-based shops
, 116
WhatsApp (app)
, 18, 21–22
Wickr (messaging application)
, 18, 21–22, 27
Withdrawal
, 63
Opiate Withdrawal Scale
, 63
Women
, 110–112, 114, 124
Xanax
, 106
- Prelims
- Chapter 1: Introduction: The Digital Transformations of Illicit Drug Markets as a Process of Reconfiguration and Continuity
- Part I: Embeddedness of Digital Drug Markets
- Chapter 2: Social Media Applications and ‘Surface Web’ Mediated Supply of Illicit Drugs: Emergent and Established Market Risks and Contradictions
- Chapter 3: Trust in Cryptomarkets for Illicit Drugs
- Chapter 4: Drugs and the Dark Web: The Americanisation of Policing and Online Criminal Law From an Australian Perspective
- Part II: Understanding Drug Demand Online
- Chapter 5: ‘Waiting for the Delivery Man’: Temporalities of Addiction, Withdrawal, and the Pleasures of Drug Time in a Darknet Cryptomarket
- Chapter 6: When Home Delivery Trumps a Shady Warehouse Deal. An Exploratory Study of Belgian Cryptomarket Buyers' Profile and Their Motives to Buy Online
- Part III: Power Relations
- Chapter 7: Cultural Politics, Reciprocal Relations, and Operational Agility in Online Drug Markets
- Chapter 8: Gender Representations in Online Modafinil Markets
- Chapter 9: Cryptomarkets and Drug Market Gentrification
- Chapter 10: The Dark Side of Cryptomarkets: Towards a New Dialectic of Self-Exploitation Within Platform Capitalism
- References
- Index